It is the role and responsibility of the adult to listen to what the child is saying during a disclosure and to carefully observe the child’s behaviour. It is NOT the role and responsibility of the adult to press for details or prove that abuse has occurred, nor to carry out an investigation. Such attempts could contaminate an investigation and jeopardize the process. When there is a suspicion that a child is being or has been abused, report to a child protection agency and ask for further direction.

Introduction

Purposeful or direct verbal disclosure occurs when a child makes the decision to tell about the abuse they have experienced. If a child chooses to disclose to you, you are likely a meaningful person in their life that they feel safe with and believes can help the situation. Sometimes, disclosure is unintentional or indirect. For example, an adult might pick up on indicators of abuse through a child’s behaviour, play, appearance, the types of questions they ask, and their fears and worries. The child may also share about an experience that indicates abuse has occurred. Whether a child discloses abuse directly or indirectly, it is imperative to keep in mind that this is a deeply vulnerable and emotionally difficult task. When we receive a child with the support, warmth, and openness they need during these times, we are validating t heir requests for help. It is also important to keep in mind that sometimes an adult may approach you with a disclosure or concern about abuse (e.g., the caregiver/parent of a very young child, etc.)

Note: It is important to keep in mind that the barriers presented here do not represent a comprehensive list nor do they convey the complex interactions amongst the different factors involved. When receiving children’s disclosures, it is imperative to be aware of the complexities involved behind one’s decision to tell and the courage it takes to overcome an array of barriers. As an adult, one needs to respond with appropriate sensitivity and openness.

Children’s Vulnerability and Fears about the Consequences of Disclosure

Common barriers identified in the existing literature on barriers to disclosure include concerns about what would happen to the self, the perpetrator, and other members of the family upon disclosure (Alaggia, 2010; Ungar, et al., 2009; Jensen, et al., 2005; Crisma, et al., 2004; Paine & Hansen, 2002). In relation to the self, children report not really understanding what was happening to them and whether or not it constituted as abuse. Children have also reported not seeking help due to feeling responsible for abuse and fearing they would not be believed if they did disclose. Furthermore, not knowing what the disclosure process would entail further impeded disclosure due to fear of the negative consequences. In terms of concerns about the perpetrator, children who had an attachment to the perpetrator (e.g., a caregiver, relative, close family friend, etc.) reported being worried about what would happen to this person if they disclosed the abuse. In some cases, children were threatened by the perpetrator to keep the abuse a secret and to not tell. Finally, children also reported feeling concerned about the consequences of disclosure on other members of their families. For example, if the alleged abuser was a family member and was taken away leading to a family crisis, children may believe they were the cause of this by disclosing the abuse.

Lack of Support from Surrounding Environment

Sometimes children are not supported when they disclose about abuse. It has been found that children are generally very sensitive to and accurate about the perceived responses of their families in the event of a disclosure (Hershkowitz, et al., 2007; Staller & Nelson-Gardell, 2005; Jensen, et al., 2005). When children expect a negative response from the adults around them, they were less likely to disclose about abuse because they did not think the adults would respond effectively. When children live in family environments where relationships are unstable, communication is closed and indirect, and when violence is involved, they report being less likely to approach a family member for help (Alaggia, 2010; Alaggia & Kirshenbaum, 2005; Crisma, et al., 2004; Kogan, 2004). When family dynamics are unstable, a child may feel helpless and isolated within the family or the family itself experiences isolation from the greater community. Other barriers at the community level include lack of neighbourhood and school involvement in child safety. This can leave children not knowing where or how to access resources for help. Finally, when children do not feel supported in the disclosure process, they may recant (take back) their disclosure (Rimer & Prager, 2016). Some children may be pressured or threatened to recant, some may do so because they feel responsible for the abuse, and others may do so because of the stress experienced during the investigative process.

Cultural Factors Impeding Disclosure

Various cultural factors also impact whether or not children disclose about abuse (Chan, et al., 2011; Alaggia, 2010; Aronson Fontes & Plummer, 2010; Shalhoub-Kevorkian, 2005; Paine & Hansen, 2002). In the case of child sexual abuse, the following factors have been found to act as impediments to disclosure: cultural definitions of shame, modesty, respect, and honour, culturally-prescribed gender roles, women’s status, and patriarchal family and community structures. For example, children from cultures where sexuality is a taboo subject may find it difficult to disclose sexual abuse due to the understanding that this topic is off-limits. Overall, across cultures whereby children do not feel seen or heard, it is less likely that they will seek help in the face of abuse and if they do, they may not always be met with an appropriate response. On the other hand, cultural insensitivity (e.g., the use of broad stereotypes, lack of linguistic services, etc.) to the needs of diverse cultural communities may further prevent children and families from accessing the help they need.

Gender Factors Impeding Disclosure

The messages spread through mainstream media and society in general about gender roles and expectations can prevent children and youth from disclosing about abuse (Alaggia, 2010; Alaggia & Millington, 2008; Alaggia, 2005; Paine & Hansen, 2002). For example, Alaggia and Millington (2008) revealed that boys and men were hesitant to disclose abuse due to stereotypical expectations around masculinity and the misconception that males are immune to victimization. On the other hand, girls and women reported not disclosing due to feeling responsible for the abuse or fears of being blamed or not believed. In addition, both male and female victims of abuse reported experiencing concerns with their sexuality and sexual orientation. 

Unclear Disclosures and Communication Barriers

Sometimes, children’s disclosures of abuse may appear unclear or indirect (Katz, et al., 2012; Alaggia, 2010; Jensen, et al., 2005; Staller & Nelson-Gardell, 2005). Younger children may not have the cognitive or linguistic capacity to clearly communicate their experience of abuse and may sometimes express their distress non-verbally or indirectly. For example, indicators can include a change in behaviour or refusing to visit a place. In older children, behavioural indicators of abuse may include angry outbursts, substance abuse, eating disorders, and/or running away from home. The fact that children may express their distress in indirect ways underscores the importance of adults remaining sensitive to children’s behaviours and responses and to follow up with them regarding what is troubling them. On the other hand, not all children display outward signs of distress and this can result in their distress being unnoticed. It is important not to make premature assumptions based on the presence or absence of indicators.

Children with disabilities may experience significant communication barriers that impede their disclosures of abuse. They experience significantly higher incidences of child maltreatment compared to their peers without disabilities yet underreporting is a prevalent issue (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2012; Stalker & McArthur, 2012; Wolfe, et al., 2003). Children with disabilities may be physically or socially isolated, limiting their access to protection services (Paine & Hansen, 2002). Furthermore, due to communication barriers, their disclosures of abuse may be perceived as being less credible and thus minimized (Goldman, 1994). Finally, children with disabilities may be exposed to a greater number of caregivers across different settings, which increases the complexity around access for help around abuse. The barriers identified here do not represent a comprehensive list.

Abuse Occurring in an Organization

Abuse may happen in the context of organizations and this can further complicate the disclosure process (Rimer & Prager, 2016). Due to the authority and trust placed in various organizations (e.g., schools, religious institutions, etc.), children have been reported to have a difficult time disclosing abuse perpetrated against them or when they did disclose, they were not always met with supportive and appropriate responses (Wolfe, et al., 2003). Disclosure was also found to be difficult for children who were abused in sports organizations. One of the reasons for this is fears around disclosure impeding victims from achieving their goals in those sports (Brackenridge, 2001 as cited in Rimer & Prager, 2016). Abuse that occurs in an organization such as that of a religious institution can have severe psychological consequences on child victims that perpetuate into adulthood (Wolfe, et al., 2006). When children are abused in an organizational context, especially one that has social standing or authority in a community, this may lead them to lose connection with valuable community structures and resources due to developing a general distrust for authority figures and institutions.